Rwanda

Rwanda is a landlocked nation bordered by Uganda to the north, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) to the west (across Lake Kivu), Burundi to the south and Tanzania to the east.

Domestically, Rwanda's chief security threat stems from lingering divisions that became deadly during the 1994 genocide (see below) as well as opposition to President Paul Kagame's one-man rule. Internationally, Rwanda seeks to push groups linked to the 1994 genocide away from its borders, relying on proxy forces to do so. This has sometimes led to tension with neighboring countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda.

Domestic industrial capacity is limited to some maintenance functions.

Readiness is generally high. Decreased conflict following the 1990s led the military to trim its size.

Genocide and Conflict

The Republic of Rwanda is a former Belgian colony in east central Africa. About 85 percent of the population are ethnic Hutus; around 15 percent are Tutsis. The latter long dominated the country; ethnic tensions have affected the country for many years.

In April 1994, a plane carrying Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana and his Burundian counterpart was shot down, ending a cease-fire between the government and the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The group responded with a military offensive from its northern strongholds. By July 1994, approximately 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus had been killed at the hands of Hutu extremists (After the genocide -- belatedly declared by the United Nations -- perhaps 2 million Hutus fled to Zaire (later Democratic Republic of Congo), including many involved in the mass killings.)

The RPF in July 1994 defeated the remaining forces of President Habyarimanam and seized the capital, Kigali. In August 1994, the RPF gained full control of Rwanda. The RPF split into a political division under the same name and a military arm called the Rwandan Patriotic Army, which is now known as the Rwandan Defense Forces. The RPF remains the dominant political party.

U.N. peacekeepers left Rwanda in December 1995. At that time, the mandate of the U.N. mission had expired and the Rwandan government, led by the victorious RPF, refused to allow the mission to remain. At its height, the force of peacekeepers, aid workers and diplomats numbered some 6,000. With the departure of the peacekeepers, it became less likely that the Hutu refugees would trust the Rwandan government and return home.

There are still tens of thousands of largely Hutu refugees outside of Rwanda (mainly in Burundi and the DRC) who have refused to return after fleeing from the RPF. The exiles offered to return in exchange for a power-sharing arrangement. The Rwandan government said that it would make no arrangements with anyone who took part in the killing of Tutsis. In mid-2009, the U.N. and Rwandan government urged the 18,000 or so Rwandan refugees in Uganda to return home. Few did so.

Pursuing fugitives of the genocide has remained a priority for Kigali. This has included international operations (like those into the Democratic Republic of Congo) to prevent groups associated with the genocide from setting up camps on Rwandan borders. It has also included international efforts to criminally pursue those suspected of involvement.

Politics

President Paul Kagame has ruled since taking power after the defeat of the Hutu-led government in 1994. He won elections for seven-year terms in 2003 and 2010. As a young child, he and his family -- as did many Tutsis -- fled to Uganda. He has had military training in Uganda, Tanzania and the U.S.

In January 2016, a referendum was held allowing Kagame to change the country’s constitution to allow him to run for re-election in 2017. He then declared his intention to run. The changes allowed Kagame to run for another seven-year term, followed by two five-year terms, potentially allowing him to stay in office until 2034.

Critics have charge Kagame with stifling media and political opposition.

In August 2017, Kagame was re-elected, winning a third seven-year term with 99 percent of the vote. Human-rights groups, including Amnesty International, the U.S. State Dept. and the European Union criticized the election.

Relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Rwanda has had strained relations with Zaire (as it was called between 1971 and 1997), a situation that did not change when its neighbors became the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

During the First Congo War (1996-1997), Rwanda (and Uganda) provided large numbers of troops to support the Zairean rebel movement led by Laurent Kabila, which led to the overthrow of the Zairean government of Mobuto Sese Seko. The proximate cause of the conflict was a Rwandan operation in eastern Congo, targeting Hutu refugees who had fled to Zaire and were conducting cross-border attacks. The conflict widened, destabilizing much of the country but installing Kabila, who was seen as more amenable to Rwandan interests. The U.N. accused the Rwandan military and political leaders of exploiting the eastern Congo's natural resources under the cover of war.

Rwanda intervened in the DRC again in 1998 in the Second Congo War. This time, Rwanda fought against Kabila’s government after he expelled Rwandan and Ugandan forces from the east of the DRC. In August 1998, Rwandan forces began supporting Tutsi rebels in the country, claiming that Kabila was organizing genocide against Tutsis in the Congo's Kivu region. Rwandan troops and their allies threatened the capital of Kinshasa before a number of African countries intervened on behalf of Kabila’s government.

In July 2002, a peace pact was signed between Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The agreement called for the withdrawal of all Rwandan troops in the DRC in return for the disarmament and arrest of Rwandan Hutu militias. Beginning in 2002, Rwanda repeatedly threatened to attack rebel groups in eastern DRC if the Congolese government did not disarm them.

After being leaked prematurely, a U.N. report released in October 2010 implicated the Rwandan government of genocide in the DRC in the 1990s. The government in Kigali said the claims were "insane," and called the report a threat to regional security.

In January 2012, the Rwandan military arrested four top officers on allegations of "indiscipline" and business dealings in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. One of those placed under house arrest was a general who headed military intelligence and was an adviser to President Kagame.

In June 2012, Rwanda was accused by the DRC of supplying aid to rebels in the Congo. Former rebel fighters indicated that some officials in the Rwandan government provided them with hundreds of fighters, weapons and ammunition, as well as safe haven to renegade leader Bosco Ntaganda. A United Nations report, following weeks of delay, condemned Rwanda for supporting Congolese rebels.

In July 2012, the U.S. cut a small military aid package to Rwanda over evidence that the Rwandan government had been supporting rebel groups in the DRC. The State Dept. also decided not to provide US$200,000 in aid. Since then, foreign military financing for Rwanda has not been included in the U.S. State Dept.’s budget. (Washington does supply health assistance.) London also cut off aid to Rwanda in November of 2012, citing the support of rebels by the Rwandan government.

The U.S. State Dept. cut another source of military aid to Rwanda in October 2013 in response to its alleged support of the M23 rebel group in the DRC. The State Dept. said M23 "continues to actively recruit and abduct children in Rwandan territory." Rwanda would receive only a small amount of International Military Education and Training funding. The State Dept. said in November 2013 that it would consider resuming aid if it was convinced Rwandan support for M23 had ended.

U.S. assistance to Rwanda has remained limited and largely limited to health. Rwanda has continued to benefit from the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program, receiving an estimated US$2.4 million from 2015 to 2018.

Skirmishes between Rwanda and the DRC broke out on the border in June 2014. Each accused the other of conducting cross-border raids, prompting fighting in the DRC’s North Kivu province. Congolese officials claimed that Rwandan soldiers seized and executed a Congolese soldier. For its part, Rwanda said its forces killed five troops from the DRC after the Congolese crossed the border and attacked Rwandan units.

In September 2015, the DRC and Rwanda announced new security talks. Both countries called this a "new chapter" in bilateral relations. Both sides also agreed to eliminate the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) terrorist group and to repatriate combatants.

In December 2015, Rwandan national Ladislas Ntaganzwa was arrested in the eastern part of DRC. He was accused of being responsible for killing an estimated 20,000 people during the 1994 massacre. He had a US$5 million bounty on his head. In March 2016, he was extradited to Rwanda to be tried by a United Nations tribunal.

A Rwandan rebel commander accused of being involved in genocide in 1994 was arrested in the DRC in October 2016. Habyarimana Mucebo was thought to be the intelligence chief of the FDLR. The Congolese army claimed the arrest was not linked to the genocide, but for “leading Rwandan rebels in an attack on villagers and killing innocent people.”

In September 2019, the Congolese military said it had killed a Rwandan militant leader accused of war crimes. Sylvestre Madacumura was the leader of the FDLR's armed wing, the Forces Combattantes Abacunguzi (FOCA). Several subcommanders were also reported killed in the operation. Madacumura was wanted by the International Criminal Court on nine counts of war crimes, including murder, rape and torture. He was also believed to opposed efforts to demobilize the remaining FDLR fighters.

Relations with Uganda

Relations between Rwanda and Uganda have historically been both important and complicated. Kagame and Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni were both allies in the 1980s, when they led militant groups aimed at overthrowing their respective governments. During the Rwandan genocide in 1994, Uganda supported Kagame's push to Kigali, which ended the genocide.

In April 2012, top police officials from Uganda and Rwanda finalized an agreement pledging more cooperation against terrorism. The agreement called for working together to track, arrest and repatriate terrorist suspects. As part of the accord, the police forces promised to improve channels of communication and share information on suspects in a timely fashion.

In August 2012, police officials from Uganda and Rwanda agreed to cooperate at border crossings to reduce crime in both countries. Reports at the time had revealed that the borders were porous.

In October 2017, Uganda launched a crackdown on alleged Rwandan spies in Uganda. Those arrested included police officers accused of conducting clandestine operations on behalf of the Rwandan government.

In December 2018, a group of experts told the U.N. Security Council that Uganda, along with Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), had provided weapons and training to the Platform Five (P5), a Rwandan opposition group.

Relations between Uganda and Rwanda worsened in 2019. It began in February, with Uganda accusing "foreign forces" of plotting to assassinate Museveni. Rwanda began blocking Ugandan cargo trucks from crossing at Katuna, the busiest crossing between the two countries.

In March 2019, Rwandan officials banned Rwandans from traveling to Uganda. Kigali accused Uganda of leading an arrest campaign against Rwandans in the country, detaining up to 190. Rwanda also accused Uganda of supporting rebel groups opposed to president Kagame’s government, including the FDLR. In response, Uganda accused Rwanda of effectively imposing a trade embargo on them.

In May 2019, Uganda protested an incursion by Rwandan soldiers that it claimed resulted in two deaths. The Ugandan government said that two Rwandan soldiers entered Ugandan territory in Rukiga in pursuit of a suspected smuggler, where they shot dead a Rwandan and a Ugandan. Uganda protested the violation of its territory, which it called "criminal.” Rwanda did not immediately respond to the accusations.

Other International Relations

In July 2008, the U.N. ended the arms embargo against Rwanda, which had been in place since the 1994 genocide. This allowed Rwanda to begin modernizing its armed forces and to participate more readily in peacekeeping missions.

The U.S. and Britain began to provide leadership training to the Rwandan army in June 2009, and the U.S. Air Force made plans to help train Rwanda's air force. By 2010, airmen from the U.S. and Rwanda exchanged visits to teach maintenance management for rotary-wing aircraft. The U.S. personnel from Little Rock AFB, Ark., assisted the Rwandans in building up their fledgling service. Belgium also made plans to increase its military support to Rwanda through a joint military technical commission.

In January 2014, Rwanda, Kenya and Uganda agreed to form a defense pact among the three East African Community (EAC) states. Rwanda ratified the pact in January 2015.

Relations between South Africa and Rwanda chilled in March 2014 after armed men broke into the Johannesburg home of a former Rwandan army general who had been critical of Rwandan President Kagame. South Africa said the assailants were intelligence personnel attached to the Rwandan Embassy and expelled three diplomats. Rwanda retaliated by ordering six South African envoys out of the country.

In August 2014, convictions were handed down in South Africa for several accused with trying to murder the general. Six were charged -- three Rwandans and three Tanzanians. Four were convicted, with two from Tanzania being acquitted. The magistrate said it was clear the plot was launched by "a certain group of people from Rwanda" -- stopping just short of blaming the government.

In June 2016, Rwandan officials said that bilateral relations with South Africa had improved over the previous two years. They normalized relations, which fostered trade and diplomatic ties, said Rwandan Foreign Minister Louisa Mushikiwabo.

During an August 2014 conference in Kigali, 10 East African countries pledged troops to an Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF). Rwanda promised a motorized battalion. The force was authorized for 5,000 troops, with each battalion consisting of 850 personnel. The EASF began operating as the African Union’s standby force in July 2019 for a six-month rotation.

Relations between Rwanda and Tanzania soured in May 2013 after a former Tanzanian president suggested during an African Union meeting that the Rwandan government hold peace talks with the FDLR. Tensions grew after Tanzania accused Rwanda of backing former M23 rebels in the DRC.

Relations with Tanzania later improved. In April 2016, Tanzanian President John Magufuli made his first foreign visit to Rwanda to join a commemoration of the 1994 genocide.

In February 2016, Burundi and the DRC urged the U.N. Security Council to take action against Rwanda, accusing Kigali of recruiting refugees to oust the Burundian government. Burundi had been wracked with violence since April 2015 after President Pierre Nkurunziza announced his controversial intent to run for a third term. (There was a coup attempt and protests both before and after the election, which he won.) A U.N. panel previously reported that Rwanda had recruited refugees in a camp in eastern Rwanda and provided them with two months of military training to oust Nkurunziza.

In January 2017, the East African newspaper (Nairobi, Kenya) reported that a territorial dispute over a hill had emerged between Burundi and Rwanda. Both nations had claimed a ridge between the southern Gisagara district in Rwanda and the northern Burundian province of Ngozi. The hill was to be subject to determination by a joint border demarcation commission and had been disputed for at least 10 years. The dispute developed because of the changing course of the River Akanyaru, which had been used as a natural border between the countries. Despite the changes, the disagreement only came to the fore when Rwanda expressed disagreement with Burundian President Pierre Nkurunziza’s decision to run for a third term, in violation of Burundi’s constitution. In October 2016, Burundian officials charged that Rwandan soldiers had camped on the hill and destroyed the house of the only Burundian family there. Rwanda denied the charge.

The governments of Russia and Rwanda formalized an agreement on military-technological cooperation in February 2017. The document covered cooperation in the supply of weapons, military hardware and other military products. It also covered the delivery of spare parts and the provision of services for the development and production of military products.

In July 2018, Rwandan President Paul Kagame hosted Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Modi and Kagame signed a US$200 million loan for industrial development, irrigation and the expansion of the Kigali Special Economic Zone. Modi also announced that India would establish a new top-level diplomatic position in Rwanda, the high commissioner. The posting was India’s first in Kigali.

Also in July 2018, Chinese President Xi Jinping visited Rwanda. The two countries signed 15 agreements covering trade, development, law enforcement and diplomacy, including visa exceptions for diplomatic and service passport holders. In a joint press conference, the leaders announced that China would fund the expansion of the Masaka District Hospital in Kigali and offer loans for the construction of a highway between the Southern province and the under-construction airport. China would receive mining concessions and cooperation on geological surveys in return. The Chinese and Indian leaders were touring African countries in the lead up to the Brazil, Russia, India China and South Africa (BRICS) summit in Johannesburg.  

Rwanda hosted a portion of the U.S. Africa Partnership Flight in March 2019. The U.S. military-to-military engagement program aims to build partnerships between various African nations and the U.S.

The Nebraska National Guard signed an agreement to partner with Rwanda in December 2019 as part of the National Guard Bureau's State Partnership Program. Air Force Brig. Gen. Steven de Milliano said that the partnership would "focus on engineering, logistics, medical readiness and aviation to enhance the Rwanda Defense Force’s capability to prepare, deploy and sustain peacekeeping forces.”

In May 2020, Rwanda signed a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with the U.S. The accord replaced an existing SOFA, which was signed in 2005. Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation Vincent Biruta said that the new agreement was broader than its predecessor. U.S. Ambassador to Rwanda Peter Vrooman said that the agreement was another milestone in growing bilateral relations.

International Courts

Following a commitment between the DRC and Rwanda to hunt down former rebels, police in France in October 2010 arrested a former leader of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) rebel group who was wanted for alleged war crimes. A warrant for Callixte Mbarushimana was issued by the government of Rwanda and the International Criminal Court (ICC).

Mbarushimana faced several counts of crimes against humanity and war crimes. He and the ethnic Hutu Interhamwe militia were believed to play a pivotal role in Rwanda's 1994 genocide. In 2009, the court charged the FDLR with numerous crimes, including mass rape. The ICC released Mbarushimana in 2011 on the grounds of insufficient evidence. He was the first person tried by the court who was not convicted.

A former Rwandan minister, Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, received a life sentence in June 2011 for her role in stoking violence in southern Rwanda. She was accused of inciting troops and militia to carry out rape during the genocide. Nyiramasuhuko was the first woman to be convicted by the ICC for crimes during the period.

The trial of former Rwandan intelligence chief Pascal Simbikangwa began in Paris in February 2014. He was accused of complicity in crimes against humanity and genocide. He allegedly armed Hutu militias who staffed roadblocks and instructed them to take part in the slaughter. A month later, he was sentenced to 25 years in prison.

In May 2016, a Swedish court sentenced Claver Berinkindi, a 61-year-old Swedish citizen originally from Rwanda, to life in prison. He was convicted of genocide and gross crime under international law. He was first charged in September 2015.

In July 2016, a court in France sentenced two former Rwandan mayors to life in prison for genocide and crimes against humanity during the 1994 massacre. Tito Barahira and Octavien Ngenzi were convicted for attacks against Tutsis in the town of Kabarondo.

In December 2019, a Belgian court found a former Rwandan government official guilty for his role in the 1994 genocide. Former Agriculture Minister Fabien Nereste was found guilty of 11 war crimes. Belgian courts had previously held four trials for Rwandans accused of participating in the 1994 genocide, resulting in eight convictions.

In May 2020, French police arrested a Rwandan businessman accused of being the main financier of the 1994 genocide. Felicien Kabuga reportedly funded militias and Thousand Hills Radio, which incited the killings and served as a platform to organize violence. Kabuga was transferred to the custody of the Netherlands- and Tanzania-based International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT) in June 2020.

Opposition and Support for Rebel Groups

The repatriation of rebel groups (that participated in the 1994 genocide) into Rwanda remains unresolved. For many years, these groups found refuge in the eastern DRC. This includes the main rebel group, known as the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), which was estimated to have around 2,000 to 3,500 fighters. (See "Opposition Forces" for more.)

In July 2013, Rwanda alleged that the U.N.'s Force Intervention Brigade under the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) was backing the FDLR as well as the Congolese army.

In February 2014, the FDLR said that it would disarm and become a political group. About 100 fighters surrendered during a ceremony in North Kivu province in the DRC. At the time, more than 25,000 FDLR fighters had demobilized since 2002. The group's leaders demanded a dialogue with the Rwandan government; Kigali refused to negotiate.

In August 2014, Russ Feingold, the U.S. special envoy for the Great Lakes region in Africa, urged international forces in the eastern part of DRC to use force against the FDLR if the group did not surrender. A deadline was set for Jan. 2, 2015.

When the deadline passed, the U.N. said that preparations were underway for an offensive against the FDLR. No significant numbers of fighters had turned themselves in since June. In late January 2015, the DRC announced the start of operations. The operation was initially expected to be a joint effort between MONUSCO and the Congolese army. Some 1,500 to 2,000 FDLR rebels were believed to be in the region. However, the U.N. pulled out of the joint operation after the DRC appointed two generals suspected of human-rights violations to lead the offensive.

In December 2015, the U.N. reported that more than 700 members of the FDLR had surrendered in the DRC during the year. Many were said to be children in poor health. The surrender rate had risen since October. In January 2016, the DRC and U.N. peacekeepers agreed to resume military operation against the FDLR.

The government of the DRC accused Rwanda of sheltering M23 rebel leaders who were wanted for war crimes. The Congolese government alleged that Kigali kept delaying its attempts to interview about 500 former fighters in a camp in Rwanda. Rwanda denied the accusations.

A confidential 2013 report by the so-called U.N. Group of Experts to the Security Council alleged that Congolese and Rwandan officers were cooperating with M23 rebels, a Tutsi-dominated group, against the Congolese government.

In late July 2013, A State Dept. spokeswoman called on Rwanda to end its support to the M23 and "withdraw military personnel from eastern DRC." A Human Rights Watch report cited what it said was credible evidence that Rwanda had provided ammunition, food and training to M23, and also allowed rebel leaders to recruit inside Rwanda.

In March 2013, a leader of the rebel group M23 named Bosco Ntaganda surrendered to officials at the U.S. Embassy in Rwanda. He was transferred to the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands, where he was indicted for war crimes in 2006. Ntaganda had earlier fled the DRC due to infighting with M23 military leader Sultani Makenga. In November 2013, Makenga surrendered in Uganda, along with 1,700 fighters.

In February 2016, Rwandan authorities arrested Seraphin Mirindi, a top M23 leader, near the border with the DRC. The Congolese government urged Rwanda to extradite him.

In late 2019, the Congolese military launched a campaign against the FDLR. By December, DRC officials claimed that they had pushed out many groups from their traditional safe havens in eastern DRC. (See more below).

DEFENSE ESTABLISHMENT

The current Rwandan government was established in the aftermath of the RPF's victory in July 1994. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Maj. Gen. Paul Kagame, leader of the RPF, was sworn in as Rwanda's first Tutsi president on April 22, 2000. Kagame was re-elected in August 2003 in the first presidential elections since the 1994 genocide. He was re-elected again in August 2010. Kagame announced his intention to run again after his term ends in 2017. A constitutional change allowed such a move. He won a third term following that election.

ARMED FORCES

Rwanda's active armed force is 33,000 strong. The army has 32,000 personnel, who are grouped into four divisions, each with three brigades. The Rwandan air force has 1,000 personnel, no fixed-wing combat aircraft and five armed helicopters.

CONSCRIPTION

Service in the Rwandan armed forces is voluntary.

Rwanda has about 2,000 members in the District Administration Security Support Organ (DASSO). The paramilitary force was established in 2013 and requires recruits to take a three-month training course run by the police. DASSO is charged with supporting the security forces during crises.

The most significant opposition force is the FDLR, which has also been called the Army for the Liberation of Rwanda (ALIR) and Interahamwe. This militia opposition seeks to bring down the Rwandan...